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The 16-amino acid sequence and intramolecular disulfide bond must be verified by LC-MS

Reported in clinical practice: GI discomfort (most common, transient), injection site reactions (mild erythema, transient)

Synergistic compounds working through different mechanisms can make each component more effective

At a glance: RDA: 2.4 mcg/day (adults) UL: Not established (insufficient evidence to set a tolerable upper limit) [ref] Dietary considerations: Vegan and vegetarian diets: Vitamin B12 is only found in animal-based foods, so vegans and vegetarians are often deficient or marginal in their B12 status.[ref] B12 is often added to breakfast cereals and other refined products, so eating a vegetarian diet that includes packaged and refined foods may actually result in higher B12 levels (although probably not in better health)

Its not clear if HMO have more functions than feeding the gut microbiome